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Crilley 2014_Identification of the sources of primary organic aerosols a...

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164                                             L.R. Crilley et al. / Environmental Pollution 191 (2014) 158e165


emissions, biomass burning, meat cooking and plant wax emis-                       References
sions. Vehicle emissions, which were characterized by C20-25 al-
kanes and the observed hopanes accounted for 45  30% of the                       Brown, S.G., Herckes, P., Ashbaugh, L., Hannigan, M.P., Kreidenweis, S.M.,
                                                                                        Collett Jr., J.L., 2002. Characterization of organic aerosol in Big Bend National
overall OC, with schools having the highest traffic counts recording                     Park, Texas. Atmos. Environ. 36, 5807e5818.
higher contributions. Biomass burning recorded high contribution                   Cass, G.R., 1998. Organic molecular tracers for particulate air pollution sources. TrAC
to the OC at an average of 29  23% and a seasonal trend that                           Trends Anal. Chem. 17, 356e366.
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peaked in winter (48  19%) due to prescribed burning in bushland                       of IMPROVE and NIOSH carbon measurements. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 34, 23e34.
around Brisbane was also observed. For the same reasons, plant                     Crilley, L.R., 2013. Investigations of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Ambient
wax alkanes demonstrated a similar seasonal trend, though this                          Fine Particles in Urban Schools (PhD thesis). Faculty of Science and Engineering.
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source only accounted for a small fraction (7  6%) of the OC.                     Gehring, U., Wijga, A., Brauer, M., Fischer, P., de Jongste, J., Kerkhof, M.,
Cooking emissions accounted for 16  13% of the OC, with a school                       Oldenwening, M., Smit, H., Brunekreef, B., 2010. Traffic-related air pollution and
nearby a restaurant precinct recording high contributions. There-                       the development of asthma and allergies during the first 8 years of life. Am. J.
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                                                                                   Goldstein, A.H., Galbally, I.E., 2007. Known and unexplored organic constituents in
emissions were the major source of organic aerosols at the schools                      the Earth’s atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 1514e1521.
studied, confirming the hypothesis. The second largest contribution                 Green, M.C., Chow, J.C., Chang, M.C.O., Chen, L.W.A., Kuhns, H.D., Etyemezian, V.R.,
                                                                                        Watson, J.G., 2013. Source apportionment of atmospheric particulate carbon in
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result of controlled burning of bushland surrounding Brisbane to                   Heal, M.R., Kumar, P., Harrison, R.M., 2012. Particles, air quality, policy and health.
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    Controlled burning of bushland is common practice near urban                   Jimenez, J.L., Canagaratna, M.R., Donahue, N.M., Prevot, A.S.H., Zhang, Q., Kroll, J.H.,
                                                                                        DeCarlo, P.F., Allan, J.D., Coe, H., Ng, N.L., Aiken, A.C., Docherty, K.S., Ulbrich, I.M.,
areas in Australia as well as in other countries that are affected by                   Grieshop, A.P., Robinson, A.L., Duplissy, J., Smith, J.D., Wilson, K.R., Lanz, V.A.,
wild bush or forest fires such as the U.S.A and Mediterranean                            Hueglin, C., Sun, Y.L., Tian, J., Laaksonen, A., Raatikainen, T., Rautiainen, J.,
countries. Thus the significant influence of biomass burning from                         Vaattovaara, P., ehn, M., Kulmala, M., Tomlinson, J., Collins, D.R., Cubison, M.J.,
                                                                                        Dunlea, E.J., Huffman, A., Onasch, T.B., Alfarra, M.R., Williams, P.I., Bower, K.N.,
both controlled and wild fires that was observed in the results from                     Kondo, Y., Schneider, J., Drewnick, F., Borrmann, S., Weimer, S., Demerjian, K.L.,
this study is potentially applicable to other urban areas in Australia                  Salcedo, D., Cottrell, L., Griffin, R., Takami, A., Miyoshi, T., Hatakeyama, S.,
and other countries. Another notable aspect of the results was the                      Jayne, J.T., Herndon, S.C., Trimborn, A., Williams, L.R., Wood, E.C.,
                                                                                        Middlebrook, A., Kolb, C.E., Baltensperger, U., Worsnop, D.R., 2009. Evolution of
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activities at the schools. This result warrants further investigations             Keywood, M., Guyes, H., Selleck, P., Gillett, R., 2011. Quantification of secondary
to determine the full impact of meat cooking emissions at schools.                      organic aerosol in an Australian urban location. Environ. Chem. 8, 115e126.
                                                                                   Kleeman, M.J., Robert, M.A., Riddle, S.G., Fine, P.M., Hays, M.D., Schauer, J.J.,
Finally, although vehicle emissions were identified as a major source
                                                                                        Hannigan, M.P., 2008. Size distribution of trace organic species emitted from
in this study, it is not necessarily the only major source of pollution                 biomass combustion and meat charbroiling. Atmos. Environ. 42, 3059e3075.
in urban areas, as only a subset of organic compounds were analyzed                Mejía, J.F., Choy, S.L., Mengersen, K., Morawska, L., 2011. Methodology for assessing
                                                                                        exposure and impacts of air pollutants in school children: data collection,
in this work. Overall, the results from this study point to the influ-
                                                                                        analysis and health effects e a literature review. Atmos. Environ. 45, 813e823.
ence of both local (traffic) and regional (biomass burning) sources of              Mohr, C., DeCarlo, P.F., Heringa, M.F., Chirico, R., Slowik, J.G., Richter, R., Reche, C.,
primary organic aerosols on the levels of ambient particles that                        Alastuey, A., Querol, X., Seco, R., Peñuelas, J., Jiménez, J.L., Crippa, M.,
children are exposed at schools. This has implications for potential                    Zimmermann, R., Baltensperger, U., Prévôt, A.S.H., 2012. Identification and
                                                                                        quantification of organic aerosol from cooking and other sources in Barcelona
control measures for mitigating exposure at schools, as contribu-                       using aerosol mass spectrometer data. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 1649e1665.
tions from regional biomass burning events can at certain times                    Orasche, J., Schnelle-Kreis, J., Abbaszade, G., Zimmermann, R., 2011. In-situ deriva-
surpass those of local traffic emissions. Therefore, while efforts to                    tization thermal desorption GC-TOFMS for direct analysis of particle-bound
                                                                                        non-polar and polar organic species. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 8977e8993.
reduce the levels of primary organic aerosols could focus on                       Oros, D.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 2000. Identification and emission rates of molecular
reducing local traffic emissions at schools, consideration should also                   tracers in coal smoke particulate matter. Fuel 79, 515e536.
be given to regional biomass burning sources, particularly in loca-                Paatero, P., Tapper, U., 1994. Positive matrix factorization: a non-negative factor
                                                                                        model with optimal utilization of error estimates of data values. Environmetrics
tions affected by wild and controlled fires.                                             5, 111e126.
                                                                                   Pietrogrande, M.C., Abbaszade, G., Schnelle-Kreis, J., Bacco, D., Mercuriali, M.,
                                                                                        Zimmermann, R., 2011. Seasonal variation and source estimation of organic
Acknowledgments                                                                         compounds in urban aerosol of Augsburg, Germany. Environ. Pollut. 159, 1861e
                                                                                        1868.
                                                                                   Qadir, R.M., Abbaszade, G., Schnelle-Kreis, J., Chow, J.C., Zimmermann, R., 2013.
    This work was supported by the Australian Research Council
                                                                                        Concentrations and source contributions of particulate organic matter before
(ARC), QLD Department of Transport and Main Roads (DTMR) and                            and after implementation of a low emission zone in Munich, Germany. Environ.
QLD Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE)                             Pollut. 175, 158e167.
through Linkage Grant LP0990134. Our particular thanks go to R.                    Robinson, A.L., Subramanian, R., Donahue, N.M., Bernardo-Bricker, A., Rogge, W.F.,
                                                                                        2006a. Source apportionment of molecular markers and organic aerosol. 2.
Fletcher (DTMR) and B. Robertson (DETE) for their vision regarding                      Biomass smoke. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 7811e7819.
the importance of this work. We would also like to thank Prof G.                   Robinson, A.L., Subramanian, R., Donahue, N.M., Bernardo-Bricker, A., Rogge, W.F.,
Marks, Dr P. Robinson, Prof K. Mengersen, Prof Z. Ristovski, Dr. M.                     2006b. Source apportionment of molecular markers and organic aerosol. 3.
                                                                                        Food cooking emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 7820e7827.
Mazaheri, Dr C. He, Dr G. Johnson, Dr R. Jayaratne, Dr S. Low Choy,                Rogge, W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., 1998. Sources of fine
Prof G. Williams, W. Ezz, F. Salimi, S. Clifford, M. Mokhtar, N. Mishra,                organic aerosol. 9. Pine, oak, and synthetic log combustion in residential fire-
R. Laiman, L. Guo, Prof C. Duchaine, Dr H. Salonen, Dr X. Ling, Dr J.                   places. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 13e22.
                                                                                   Rogge, W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 1993a.
Davies, Dr L. Leontjew Toms, F. Fuoco, Dr A. Cortes, Dr B. Toelle, A.                   Sources of fine organic aerosol. 2. Noncatalyst and catalyst-equipped automo-
Quinones, P. Kidd, E. Belousova, Dr M. Falk, Dr F. Fatokun, Dr J. Mejia,                biles and heavy-duty diesel trucks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 636e651.
Dr D. Keogh, Prof T. Salthammer, R. Appleby and C. Labbe for their                 Rogge, W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 1993b.
                                                                                        Sources of fine organic aerosol. 3. Road dust, tire debris, and organometallic brake
contribution to the UPTECH project.                                                     lining dust: roads as sources and sinks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 1892e1904.
                                                                                   Rogge, W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 1993c.
                                                                                        Sources of fine organic aerosol. 4. Particulate abrasion products from leaf sur-
Appendix A. Supplementary data                                                          faces of urban plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 2700e2711.
                                                                                   Rückerl, R., Schneider, A., Breitner, S., Cyrys, J., Peters, A., 2011. Health effects of
                                                                                        particulate air pollution: a review of epidemiological evidence. Inhal. Toxicol.
   Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
                                                                                        23, 555e592.
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.04.023.
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